Over voltage protection of switching converter

ABSTRACT

Embodiments for at least one method and apparatus of generating a regulated voltage are disclosed. One apparatus includes a voltage regulator. The voltage regulator includes regulator circuitry for generating a regulated voltage from a first power supply and a second power supply, and voltage spike protection circuitry for voltage-spike-protecting the regulator circuitry, wherein the voltage spike protection circuitry includes a dissipative element and a charge-storage circuit. One method includes a method of generating a regulated voltage. The method includes regulator circuitry generating a regulated voltage from an input voltage, and voltage-spike-protecting the regulator circuitry with voltage spike protection circuitry, wherein the voltage spike protection circuitry includes a dissipative element and a charge-storage circuit.

FIELD OF THE DESCRIBED EMBODIMENTS

The described embodiments relate generally to power conversion. Moreparticularly, the described embodiments relate to over voltageprotection of a switching converter.

BACKGROUND

DC voltage converters and regulators are well-known in the art and arewidely employed to ensure that the DC voltage provided to electronicdevices is of the correct value independent of variations in theavailable supply voltage or the load presented by the device beingpowered. For example, most battery-operated consumer electronics devicesuse DC-DC regulators to convert the 2.7-5.5 V battery voltage down to a0.56-3.4 V operating voltage required by the on-board integratedcircuits. Voltage regulators are universally used to convert the batteryvoltage to the desired fixed value to be supplied to the integratedcircuit, and to ensure that value remains constant as the battery agesand the current used by the integrated circuit changes.

Voltage regulators can be classified as either linear mode or switchedmode. A linear regulator is essentially a resistive load placed inseries (or in parallel) with the load to be powered; the resistance ofthe regulator is adjusted by a control circuit to ensure that thevoltage at the regulator output is constant. In contrast, a switchedregulator converts a DC input voltage to a time-varying voltage orcurrent, and then makes use of rectifying or switching elements andpassive components such as inductors and capacitors, in conjunction witha control circuit, to re-convert this time-varying signal to a DCvoltage at a fixed value differing from the input voltage. FIG. 1 showsan example of a prior art linear voltage regulator and a prior artswitching mode voltage regulator.

Linear regulators are simple to implement, fast-acting, and compact.Further, they do not radiate interfering signals (EMI). However, theyhave two important limitations. First, a linear regulator can onlyreduce and not increase the voltage presented to it. Secondly, linearregulators are very inefficient in many applications (or in cases wherethe output voltage is not slightly below the input voltage). Efficiencyis defined as the ratio of output power divided by input power. In thecase of an ideal linear regulator (in which no power is dissipated inthe control or regulatory circuitry), the efficiency can be no betterthen V_(out)/V_(in), where V_(out) is the output voltage of theregulator and V_(in) is the input voltage of the regulator. Thus, when asubstantial reduction in the input voltage is called for by theapplication, a linear regulator must inevitably provide poor efficiency.Other regulator topologies, such as a shunt linear regulator, (whereinthe regulator acts as a variable resistor in parallel with the load),can also be used, but produce substantially similar results.Particularly in the case of battery-powered devices, inefficient voltageregulation directly impacts the expected battery life and thus is highlyundesirable. As a consequence of these limitations, switched modeconverters are used for many electronic applications, particularly thosewhere energy efficiency and/or battery life are of critical importance.

Unfortunately, most switched mode regulators require large valued (andphysically large and thick) external inductors and capacitors tooperate. To understand why, let us consider as an example a typicalprior-art voltage-reducing (“buck”) converter, shown in simplified formin FIG. 2 (note that the transistors might be PMOS or NMOS devices). Theresulting time-dependent inductor current in the limit of ideal(instantaneous) switching is shown in FIG. 3. In operation, the seriesswitching transistor Q_(series) is switched on for a time intervalT_(on), allowing current to flow from the supply through the outputinductor L_(out). During this time period T_(on), the output current 101grows linearly with time, at a rate proportional to the differencebetween the input and output voltages, the latter being substantiallyfixed during the switching cycle if a sufficiently large outputcapacitor value C_(out) is employed:

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\mathbb{d}I_{out}}{\mathbb{d}t} = \frac{\left( {V_{in} - V_{out}} \right)}{L_{out}}} & (1)\end{matrix}$At the expiration of T_(on), the switch Q_(series) is turned off. Aftera short dead time, the switch Q_(shunt) is then turned on, and theinductor current flows from ground through Q_(shunt). Again the current102 changes linearly with time, in this case decreasing with increasingtime:

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\mathbb{d}I_{out}}{\mathbb{d}t} = \frac{- V_{out}}{L_{out}}} & (2)\end{matrix}$

The current through the output inductor thus varies with time; thisvariation is known as inductor current ripple. For any given inductorvalue, if the time T_(off) during which the series switch Q_(series) isoff is long enough, the inductor current will decrease to zero value andeither reverse direction or be terminated by turning Q_(shunt) off. Themode of operation in which current is terminated is known as“discontinuous” operation, in order to distinguish it from “continuous”operation, in which current is always being delivered to the load fromthe output inductor. In most practical converter designs, the variationin current with time (the ripple current) is chosen to be less thanabout 20 percent of the average output current, as a rule-of-thumb. Therequirement for limiting ripple to 20% of the average current sets aminimum inductance value requirement:

$\begin{matrix}{L_{\min} = {\frac{V_{out}}{0.2\mspace{14mu}\left( I_{out} \right)}\frac{1 - {V_{out}/V_{in}}}{f_{s}}}} & (3)\end{matrix}$where (Iout) is the average output current of the converter and f_(s) isthe switching frequency. This relationship is depicted graphically inFIG. 4 for typical values of parameters relevant to mobile devices. (Theline shown in the figure is specific to the 20% ripple limit mentionedabove, and would shift position slightly if a different criterion wereapplied.) For converters operating in the traditional switchingfrequency range of 50 kHz to 1 MHz, it is apparent that inductors of onthe order of 3 to 30 μH are required for continuous operation.

Such large inductance values are normally achieved by wrapping aconductor around a ferromagnetic core, greatly increasing the inductanceobtained for a given number of turns of a given radius. At sufficientlylow frequencies, these inductors have very low losses. However, theyhave several disadvantages.

The materials used to magnetically enhance the inductor have limitationson operational temperature (typically to −30 to +85° C.), andlimitations on the peak current due to core saturation effects. Aferromagnetic material reaches saturation when the magnetization in thecore material no longer increases in response to an increase in themagnetizing field from the windings. Saturation occurs when themagnitude of the magnetizing field is larger than a maximum value; themaximum value falls with increasing temperature, and is greatly reducedat high frequencies (typically>20 MHz). Core saturation leads to asignificant reduction in inductance and an increase in loss, (both ofthe latter due to a large increase in inductor current). Therefore, theinductor cannot be allowed to saturate during normal regulatoroperation.

As a result, a magnetically-enhanced inductor must be carefully designedand selected for the application. For example, for the buck converterdepicted in FIG. 2, the maximum load current is:

$\begin{matrix}{{I_{{load},\max} = {I_{{out},\max,{DC}} - I_{{out},{p - p}}}}{I_{{out},{p - p}} = {{I_{\max} - I_{\min}} = {\left( {V_{in} - V_{out}} \right)\frac{V_{out}}{V_{in}}\frac{1}{f_{s}L_{out}}}}}} & (4)\end{matrix}$Here I_(out, max, DC) is the largest current that can flow in the outputinductor without experiencing saturation. I_(out, p-p) is thepeak-to-peak variation in current as depicted in FIG. 3, and isexpressed in terms of the input and output voltages and switchingfrequency under the assumption of ideal switching used previously.

For a given application, the maximum load current and the input andoutput voltages are fixed requirements. Thus, the core must be sized tosupport the required current for the application. Switching frequencycan be increased to reduce the peak current encountered, but as notedabove, at high frequencies the saturation magnetization falls, setting alimit on how much improvement can be obtained in that manner. At higherfrequency the core losses begin to increase rapidly and efficiencyfalls.

Most importantly, magnetic inductors are most typically fabricated bywinding wire around a magnetic core. Wound magnetic inductors are bulkycompared to components integrated on a semiconductor chip. Marketdemands for consumer electronics are driving component suppliers tocreate the thinnest and smallest devices possible. For battery-operateddevices, the height of the electronic components mounted in the internalprinted circuit board (PCB) is usually limited by the thickness of theinductors used for DC-DC power conversion. In addition, as discussedabove, wound magnetic inductors are best suited for operation atfrequencies of a few MHz or below. The capacitor C_(out) of FIG. 2 actswith the output inductor L_(out) to filter the output voltage. In orderto ensure minimal output ripple, the capacitance must have a largeenough value to store the time-varying charge delivered during theswitching cycle without significant variation in the voltage across thecapacitor. For converters operating at 10 MHz or less, the capacitor istypically 5 μF or larger, again adding substantially to the size andexpense of the converter. Additionally, a capacitor is needed at theinput of the converter, which is somewhat larger, or somewhat smaller invalue compared with the output capacitor. For example, 0.5 times to 2times the value of the output capacitor.

From equation (3) and FIG. 4, it is apparent that the size of theinductor can be reduced if the switching frequency is increased. Valuesof a few tens of nH can be considered for switching frequencies in thetens to hundreds of MHz. As an ancillary benefit, the required filtercapacitor values are also reduced. The use of lower-valued inductorsallows use of planar geometries that can be integrated onprinted-circuit boards or fabricated in integrated circuits. Whilemagnetic materials may still be employed, their deposition requiresadditional process steps and thus adds cost. At increasing switchingfrequency, most magnetic materials have reduced permeability andincreased losses, though the exact behavior varies widely depending onthe material and fabrication techniques employed. Therefore it is ofinterest to combine high-frequency switching withnon-magnetically-enhanced inductors to realize compact, efficientswitched mode DC-DC converters.

Increasing the switching frequency to 10 to 100 MHz or higher, whilemaintaining high efficiency, requires that losses within the switches beminimized. Switching losses arise from two independent sources, depictedin a simplified fashion in FIG. 5. The switch voltage and current aredepicted qualitatively versus time in 110. During the time when a switchis open (in the case of a transistor, the applied gate voltage is suchas to eliminate the conductive channel), it sustains a substantialvoltage but very little current flows through it, so losses arenegligible. Similarly, when the switch is closed (when the gate voltageis set so as to enhance channel conductivity), large currents flow butrelatively little voltage appears across the switch (due to thesupposedly low transistor on-resistance RON), so losses are again low.However, during the time T_(sw) when the transistor transitions from theopen to closed state, or vice versa, large voltages and currents may besimultaneously present, and losses can be substantial due to power beingdissipated across the switching devices. These losses are on the orderof the product of operating current, voltage, and switching time, andoccur twice each cycle. For a buck converter with symmetrical switchingof the series and shunt transistors, and a simple linear dependence ofthe current and voltage on time, we have:

$\begin{matrix}{P_{switch} \approx {\frac{2}{3}I_{out}V_{\max}T_{sw}f_{s}}} & (5)\end{matrix}$where P_(switch) is the power dissipated by the two switchingtransistors when switching at frequency f_(s), T_(sw) is the timerequired for the transistor to switch on or off, and V_(max) is thevoltage present on the switch in the open state immediately prior toclosing, or just after opening. For a fixed switching time T_(sw), theselosses increase with switching frequency f_(s).

Secondly, the voltage on the gate of a transistor must be changed inorder to switch its state from open to closed or closed to open. Inorder to change the voltage, a quantity of charge proportional to thecapacitance C_(gate) of the transistor must be added to or removed fromthe gate by the driver circuitry 130. Charging the gate capacitance to avoltage V_(gate) through a resistive series element requires an energy120 of C_(gate) V_(gate) ², which must be supplied for each switchingcycle; this energy is lost when the charge ultimately finds its way toground (unless some sort of charge recycling is used), resulting in aminimum dissipation proportional to frequency for each switchingtransistor:P _(gate) =C _(gate) V _(gate) ² f _(sw)  (6)

Prior art solutions to the problem of dissipation within the transistorchannel during switching at high frequencies have been directed towardsminimizing the drain-source voltage V_(max). In the limit where thevoltage across each transistor is 0 at the time when the state of thetransistor is changed, little or no power is dissipated during theswitching event. This condition is known as soft-switching orzero-voltage switching (ZVS). (Analogous approaches exist for switchingat zero current through the switching device, known as Zero CurrentSwitching, and offering similar benefits and challenges.) An example ofthe control timing used in this approach is shown in FIG. 6, with atypical prior art circuit shown in FIG. 7. Zero-voltage switchingdepends on the use of a non-overlap or dead time during which both theseries and shunt switches are off, such as time intervals 206 and 207.During this time, current into or out of the node V_(sw) continues toflow due to the large inductor L_(out), causing the node voltage 208 tochange. When the series switch control voltage 201 goes high to turn theseries switch Q_(series) off, the node voltage 208 falls; if the shuntswitch control voltage 202 goes high just as the voltage 208 crosses 0,little or no voltage is present between the transistor drain and sourceat the moment of switching, and switching loss is reduced. However, indead time 207, when the shunt switch is turned off under normallow-ripple operation, the node voltage again falls, increasing thevoltage presented to the series switch. In order to achieve ZVS on bothswitching elements, it is necessary that the inductor ripple currentexceed the average current, so that current flows into the V_(sw) nodeduring the portion of the switching cycle 205, when the shunt switchcontrol 202 has gone low but the series switch control 201 is stillhigh. The node voltage 208 will then rise as current flows into thenode; when the node voltage equals that supplied to the series switch,the series switch control voltage 201 goes low, so that turn-on of theseries transistor Q_(series) also occurs at near zero voltage across thetransistor, minimizing loss therein. The rate at which the voltageV_(sw) varies during the time both switches are off is determined by theratio of the node current and capacitance. The node capacitance mayintrinsically be very small, causing rapid changes in voltage and makingit difficult to maintain correct switch timing, so it is typical to addcapacitance to the node or in parallel with the switching transistors,depicted in FIG. 7 as C_(series) and C_(shunt), to simplify the problemof accurate switch timing.

To minimize dissipation due to switching of the capacitive loadpresented by the switching transistors, prior art work has focused ondesigns that store the gate capacitor switching energy in additionalinductive elements, forming a resonant converter (FIG. 8). As iswell-known, series resonant circuits can maintain large voltages acrossthe individual elements with very low loss if the ratio of reactance toresistance of each element is large. However, such circuitry operatesoptimally only over a narrow band of frequencies and presentssubstantially sinusoidal voltages to the constituent components, sopulse-width modulation (PWM) cannot generally be used to control theoutput voltage, and other means such as frequency variation or on-offcontrol must be substituted. Finally, the use of a resonant input maylead to large voltage swings on the switching transistor gates in orderto ensure fast switching transients, which can cause reliabilityproblems.

An alternative approach to minimizing both sources of switching loss isto employ very fast switching times, thus reducing the term T_(sw) inequation (5). The time required to switch the transistor should be asmall fraction of the switching control period. For operation at 100MHz, where the switching control period is 10 nsec, the time T_(sw) fora sinusoidal voltage (appropriate for use in a ZVS converter) is about1.6 nsec. In order to achieve comparable switching dissipation whenswitching at a finite voltage, the switching time T_(sw) should be nomore than about ⅕ of this time, or 350 psec.

Advanced transistors using very short channel lengths and very thinoxides, with reduced area consumption and lower turn-on voltages, arenecessary to implement such fast switching times. By using suchtechnologies, capacitance is minimized (for the same RON) and thevoltage required to change the transistor state is reduced, and thusgate switching loss is also reduced. Table 1 summarizes typical valuesof some key figures of merit for CMOS technologies as a function oftechnology generation (expressed as the minimum feature size L_(min)).It is clear that for more advanced technology generations, the energyneeded to charge a unit gate area to the maximum allowed voltage fallsprecipitously, reducing the gate switching loss. (The simple figure ofmerit shown here underestimates the resulting benefit, because the arearequired to achieve a given on resistance also falls for smaller featuresizes.) The minimum delay also falls, and thus the product of the timeneeded to change the state of a switch and the switching frequency,which determines the channel switching loss, falls from a substantialvalue of 12% for 0.5 micron transistors, to a negligibly small value of1.5% for 65 nm structures.

TABLE 1 Key converter parameters for different generations of siliconCMOS fabrication technology. Vmax Minimum Gate 2T_(sw) Lmin Cgate Kn DCVt delay energy *f_(sw) 0.5 3 60 5 1 94 37.5 7.5% 0.35 5 80 3.3 1 10027.2  8% 0.25 6 100 2.7 0.8 59 21.9 4.7% 0.18 8 130 1.8 0.65 52 13.04.2% 0.13 9 150 1.3 0.55 41 7.6 3.2% 0.09 10 160 1.1 0.45 23 6.1 1.9%0.065 10 160 1.1 0.4 11 6.1 0.9%

TABLE 2 Explanation of the parameter names used in Table 1. ParameterDescription Units Lmin Minimum dimension characteristic of a givenmicrons technology generation. Cgate Gate capacitance of the standardMOS transistor. fF/μm² Kn Transconductance parameter of NMOS device.μA/V² Vmax DC Maximum allowed value of Vgs or Vds, measured V at DC VtThreshold voltage of MOS transistor. V Delay Characteristic delay formatched inverters (ring Ps oscillator), estimated as$T_{switch} \approx \frac{2\beta\; L_{\min}^{2}}{\mu_{n}\left( {V_{\max\mspace{14mu}{DC}} - V_{l}} \right)}$where μ_(n) is the electron mobility estimated from the measured gatecapacitance and transconductance parameter, and □ is an empiricalconstant adjusted to agree with simulation results at Lmin = 0.18micron. Gate energy Energy to charge 1 square micron gate to Vmax fJ2Tsw*fsw Relative percentage of the switching period % devoted to actualtransitions, estimated as [2 * (switch transition time * 100 MHz)],assuming a 4x tapered buffer.

However, it can be observed that the maximum allowable DC voltages arealso decreased, and in fact previously reported input voltage forsingle-switching-transistor converters is shown as a function of thetechnology used in FIG. 9. It is apparent that for CMOS devices withcritical dimensions of 180 nm and below, the input voltage will fallbelow commonly-encountered supply voltages, such as 3.0, 3.6, and 5volts, of importance in portable device applications. Under theseconditions, a conventional buck converter circuit as depicted in FIG. 2cannot operate reliably.

Therefore, there exists a need for a DC-DC converter that issimultaneously compact (including optimally fabrication of all activeand passive components on a single semiconductor die), low in cost, andhighly efficient even at small ratios of output to supply voltage andlow output current.

It is desirable to have a method and apparatus for protecting switchingelements of a converter from transient voltages to allow fast low-lossswitching operations without degradation of reliability.

SUMMARY

An embodiment includes a voltage regulator. The voltage regulatorincludes regulator circuitry for generating a regulated voltage from afirst power supply and a second power supply, and voltage spikeprotection circuitry for voltage-spike-protecting the regulatorcircuitry, wherein the voltage spike protection circuitry includes adissipative element and a charge-storage circuit.

Another embodiment includes a method of generating a regulated voltage.The method includes regulator circuitry generating a regulated voltagefrom an input voltage, and voltage-spike-protecting the regulatorcircuitry with voltage spike protection circuitry, wherein the voltagespike protection circuitry includes a dissipative element and acharge-storage circuit.

Another embodiment includes a method of generating a regulated voltage.The method includes regulator circuitry generating the regulated voltagethough controlled closing and opening of a series switch element andshunt switch element, wherein the series switch element is connectedbetween a first voltage supply and a common node, and the shunt switchis connected between the common node and a second supply voltage. Themethod further includes closing the series switch element during a firstperiod, and closing the shunt switch element during a second period,wherein the series switch element and the shunt switch element formswitching blocks, and each switching block includes a plurality ofswitching block segments. The method further includesvoltage-spike-protecting the regulator circuitry with voltage spikeprotection circuitry, wherein the voltage spike protection circuitryincludes a dissipative element and a charge-storage circuit.

Other aspects and advantages of the described embodiments will becomeapparent from the following detailed description, taken in conjunctionwith the accompanying drawings, illustrating by way of example theprinciples of the described embodiments.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows an example of prior art linear voltage regulator and aprior art switching mode voltage regulator.

FIG. 2 shows an example of a prior art buck switching mode voltageregulator.

FIG. 3 is a time-line that shows current of an output main inductor.

FIG. 4 shows estimated values of minimum inductance of a switching modevoltage regulator required as a function of switching frequency.

FIG. 5 is a time-line that shows an example of switching loss in atypical transistor due to gate charging energy and transient dissipationin a conductive channel.

FIG. 6 shows time-lines of voltage and current waveforms of Zero-VoltageSwitching buck converter.

FIG. 7 shows an example of an implementation of a zero-voltage-switchedbuck converter that includes additional capacitance shunting switchingtransistors.

FIG. 8 shows an example of a resonant gate circuit that uses inductiveelements to minimize switching energy and maximize switching voltage.

FIG. 9 is a plot that shows maximum reported operating voltage forsingle-transistor converters using CMOS technologies.

FIG. 10 shows an example of a switching mode voltage regulator.

FIG. 11 shows an example of a time-line of the switching voltage V_(sw)of the common node, and the associated gate voltages of the seriesswitching block.

FIG. 12 shows an example of a more detailed implementation of a voltageconverter.

FIG. 13 shows an exemplary embodiment of a stacked series switch elementand a stacked shunt switch element.

FIG. 14 shows exemplary biasing conditions for shunt switching andprotection transistors.

FIG. 15 shows an example of a conventional means of constructing abootstrapped voltage supply.

FIG. 16 shows an example of an embodiment of a bootstrap circuit thataddresses deficiencies of conventional bootstrap circuits.

FIG. 17 shows an example of an embodiment of a level-shifting circuit.

FIG. 18 shows switching circuitry segmented into four sections, and anexample of a persistent ringing condition as a result of a rapid voltagetransition.

FIG. 19 shows an example of a voltage regulator that further includesspike protection circuits.

FIG. 20 shows switching circuitry segmented into four sections, spikeprotection circuitry, and an example of the resulting damping of theringing condition.

FIG. 21 shows an example of the switching circuitry partitioned into anumber of segments, and protection circuitry segments associated witheach switching circuitry segment.

FIG. 22 shows an example of a layout of a segmented voltage converter.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The described embodiments include provisions for protection of theswitching elements of the converter from transient voltages to allowfast low-loss switching operations without degradation of reliability.Other embodiments include methods for selecting the timing of thecontrol inputs to the switching elements of the DC-to-DC converter so asto allow recapture of stored charge and minimal switching losses,without the requirement for addition of capacitance to the switchednodes.

FIG. 10 shows an example of a voltage converter 310 that includes atleast some of the elements of the described embodiments. The converter310 includes a series switching element 301 and a shunt switchingelement 302, each implemented with stacked transistors. An embodiment ofthe series switch element 301 includes an N-type metal oxidesemiconductor (NMOS) series switching transistor Q_(ssw) stacked with anNMOS series protection transistor Q_(sp), and an embodiment of the shuntswitching element 302 includes an NMOS shunt switching transistorQ_(shsw) stacked with an NMOS shunt protection transistor Q_(shp). Adashed block section 350 of FIG. 10 depicts the stacked NMOS transistorQ_(ssw), Q_(sp), Q_(shsw), Q_(shp), of the series and shunt elements301, 302, and driver and a floating power supply 304 that controls gatevoltages of the NMOS transistors Q_(ssw), Q_(sp), of the series switchelement 301.

A controller provides switching control signals that control the timingof opening and closing of the series switch element 301 and the shuntswitching element 302. This embodiment of the converter 310 furtherincludes a driver and floating power supply 304 (also referred to as abootstrap circuit) configured to provide control inputs and bias inputsto the switching and protection transistors, respectively, of the seriesswitch element 301, voltages therein being referenced to thetime-dependent value of the output switching node V_(sw).

As will be shown and described, a method of generating a regulatedvoltage includes generating the regulated voltage though controlledclosing and opening of the series switch element 301 and shunt switchelement 302. As shown in FIG. 10, the series switch element is connectedbetween a first voltage supply (shown as V_(hi) in FIG. 10) and a commonnode (depicted as the output switching node having a voltage potentialof V_(sw)), and the shunt switch element 302 is connected between thecommon node and a second supply voltage (shown as V_(loc) in FIG. 10).

The method of generating the regulated voltage includes closing theseries switch element 301 during a first period. The closing of theseries switch element 301 includes applying a switching gate voltageV_(gssw) to a gate of the NMOS series switch transistor Q_(ssw) of theseries switch element 301, wherein the switching gate voltage V_(gssw)has a voltage potential of at least a threshold voltage greater than avoltage potential (V_(SW)) of the common node. Further, the method ofgenerating the regulated voltage includes closing the shunt switchelement 302 during a second period. As previously mentioned, the shuntswitch element 302 includes the NMOS shunt switching transistor Q_(shsw)stacked with the NMOS shunt protection transistor Q_(shp).

As will be described, closing the series switch element 301 during thefirst period further includes applying a second switching gate voltageV_(gsp) to the NMOS series protection transistor Q_(sp), wherein thesecond switching gate voltage V_(gsp) has a voltage potential of lessthan the first supply voltage plus a maximum DC (direct current) voltagerating of the NMOS series switching transistor, and greater than thevoltage potential of the first voltage supply plus the thresholdvoltage. For the purposes of the discussion here, the threshold voltageis the voltage applied to the gate of the corresponding NMOS transistorthat causes the transistor to conduct current.

Closing of the shunt switch element 302 during the second periodincludes applying a switching gate voltage V_(gshsw) to a gate of theNMOS shunt switch transistor Q_(shsw) of the shunt switch element 302,wherein the switching gate voltage V_(gshsw) has a voltage potential ofat least a threshold voltage greater than a voltage potential of thesecond supply voltage. Closing the shunt switch element 302 of thesecond period further includes applying a second switching gate voltageV_(gshp) to a gate of the NMOS shunt protection transistor Q_(shp) ofshunt switch element 302, wherein the second switching gate voltageV_(gshp) has a voltage potential of less than the second supply voltageplus a maximum DC (direct current) voltage rating of the NMOS seriesswitching transistor, and greater than the voltage potential of thefirst voltage supply minus the maximum DC (direct current) voltagerating of the NMOS series switching transistor.

An embodiment includes a difference between the voltage potential of thefirst voltage supply and the second voltage supply is limited to the sumof maximum DC (direct current) voltage rating of the NMOS seriesswitching transistor and the NMOS series protection transistor.

FIG. 11 shows an example of a time-line of the switching voltage(V_(sw), also referred to as the voltage potential of the common node)of the common node, and the associated gate voltages of the seriesswitching block 301. A simplified series of regulator circuitrepresentations 1190, 1192, 1194 are provided along with the time linefor depiction of the states (open or closed) of the series switchelement 301 and the shunt switch element 302 over the switching periodsshown in the time-line.

As shown, during the previously described first period (series switchelement 301 closed, shunt switch element 302 open as depicted byregulator circuit representation 1190), the switching voltage (V_(sw))has a voltage of approximately V_(BATT). Additionally, as shown, thegate voltage V_(gssw) (also referred to as the switching gate voltage)of the gate of the NMOS series switch transistor Q_(ssw) of the seriesswitch element 301 has a voltage potential of V_(BATT) plus a thresholdvoltage (Vth). It should be observed that the voltage potential of thegate voltage V_(gssw) is greater than the voltage potential V_(BATT),thereby requiring circuitry within the driver and floating power supply304 to provide this voltage potential. Further, the gate voltage V_(gsp)(also referred to as the second switching voltage) of the gate of theNMOS series protection transistor of the series switching block 301 hasa voltage potential of V_(BATT) minus a voltage V_(max,DC), whereinV_(max,DC) is a maximum DC voltage that can be applied across the drainto source of the NMOS transistors without destroying the transistors.

During a transition period between the first period and the secondperiod, both the series switch element 301 and the shunt switch element302 are open as depicted by the regulator circuit representation 1194.During the previously described second period, (series switch element301 open, shunt switch element 302 closed as depicted by regulatorcircuit representation 1192), the switching voltage (V_(sw)) has decayedto a voltage potential of approximately zero volts. Note that theswitching voltage (V_(sw)) will fall when both series switch and shuntswitch are both open, as well as when only shunt switch is closed.Additionally, as shown, the gate voltage Vgssw of the gate of the NMOSseries switch transistor of the series switch element 301 has a voltagepotential of approximately the switching voltage (V_(sw)). Further, thegate voltage Vgsp (also referred to as the second switching voltage) ofthe gate of the NMOS series protection transistor Q_(sp) of the seriesswitching block 301 has a voltage potential of approximately V_(BATT)minus the voltage V_(max,DC).

FIG. 12 shows an example of a more detailed implementation of a voltageconverter 300. As shown, the voltage converter 300 can additionallyinclude an ultra-low-parasitic inductance on-chip voltage spikeprotection circuit 303 to enable fast, low-loss switching. As shown, theconverter 300 can additionally include a level shifting circuit 305 totranslate the signals from the controller, which reference the localground potential V_(loc), to equivalent signals referenced to thetime-dependent value of the output switching node V_(sw). This converter300 further includes driving circuitry for the shunt switching andprotection transistors, consisting of a delay block 307 with circuitrypresenting substantially identical time delays to the level shift block305 without inducing a shift in DC levels, and a tapered driver 306providing control signals to the series switch with substantiallyidentical time delays to those of the floating driver 304 for the seriesswitch.

FIG. 13 shows an exemplary embodiment of the stacked series switchelement 301 and the shunt switch element 302. As shown, each switchingblock 301 and 302 includes two transistors, a switching transistor and aprotection transistor, and is suitable for operation with supplyvoltages of roughly twice the maximum DC drain-to-source voltage allowedfor the transistor technology in use. While the stacked series switchelement 301 and the shunt switch element 302 are shown with only twotransistors, it is to be understood that other implementations caninclude more than two transistors within the stacked series switchelement 301 and the shunt switch element 302 while maintainingequivalent functionality.

Focusing attention first on the shunt switching block 302, the exemplaryembodiment includes two NMOS transistors Q_(shsw) and Q_(shp) in series,being respectively the switching and protection transistors. It isimportant to note that, as indicated by the schematic diagrams, thesetransistors are configured so that the local body contact is held at thesame potential as the source of the transistor. In the case of Q_(shsw)this potential is the same as the local ground potential V_(loc), andthis transistor may be fabricated within a local well or in the bulkmaterial, but the protection transistor or transistors Q_(shp) must befabricated within a well and with the local potential of that well tiedto the potential of the transistor source contact, in order to avoidexcessive voltages between the gate contact and the transistor bodycontact. In an embodiment each transistor is fabricated within its ownp-well placed inside an n-doped isolation region, but in an alternativeembodiment both transistors may be fabricated in isolated p-doped wellswithin a larger n-doped well, wherein the larger n-doped well is tied toa higher input voltage (generally V_(hi)). Note that the junctionbetween the well and the bulk-doped background region is typicallylow-doped and can tolerate much larger voltages than the transistorterminals without avalanche breakdown occurring. Other embodiments caninclude, for example, dielectrically isolated transistors to accomplishthe same goal.

The control voltages 312 provided to the switching transistor Q_(shsw)are referenced to a local ground potential and may be provided by aconventional tapered buffer amplifier referenced to local ground, exceptas described below in connection with management of delays within thebuffer. The gate bias voltage V_(gshp) provided to Q_(shp) is selectedto avoid excessive voltage stress to the switching transistor.

FIG. 14 shows exemplary biasing conditions for shunt switching andprotection transistors. The example of FIG. 14 is for the case in whichthe supply voltage is approximately 3.6 V, and transistors with athreshold voltage of approximately 0.5 V, and maximum gate-source,gate-drain, and drain-source voltage of 1.8 V are employed for Q_(shp)and Q_(shsw). When the series switch 301 is on and the shunt switch 302is off, referring to FIG. 14, it is apparent that the potential V_(sw)will be approximately equal to the supply voltage (ignoring smallcorrections for the on-resistance of the series switch elements andother parasitic resistances, and time-dependent voltages to be examinedin more detail below). The gate voltage provided to Q_(shsw) is lessthan the threshold voltage, so that the shunt switch is off. Byproviding an intermediate value of DC voltage to the gate of theprotection transistor, here shown as 1.8 V, the intermediate nodeV_(s,int) between the switching and protection transistors is forced toadopt a potential of less than the threshold voltage when the lowerswitch transistor is OFF and approximately equal to the VMAX when thetransistor is ON. Thus the voltages on the various nodes adjustthemselves to as to avoid excessive voltage appearing between any twotransistor terminals, and hot-carrier reliability remains acceptable.

Similarly, when the series switch 301 is off and the shunt switch 302 ison, the output voltage V_(sw) is nearly 0, ignoring the small voltagedrops due to transistor on-resistance. The voltage from the gate of theprotection transistor Q_(shp) to the source and drain is again withinthe limits of allowed voltage, ensuring acceptable resistance totime-dependent dielectric breakdown.

Note that in this circuit, and the shunt switch element as describedbelow, it is possible to employ more than two transistors in series tooperate with higher input voltages relative to the maximum acceptablevoltage for a single transistor. However, in such a case, it isnecessary to allow for a variation in the gate potential applied to theswitching transistors. Because the magnitude of the voltage appliedthereto is reduced, the additional energy supplied to the gates of theseadded protection transistors is small relative to that required forswitching a single main transistor of similar capacitance.

Turning next to the series switch element 301, the exemplaryimplementation includes two NMOS transistors Q_(ssw) and Q_(sp) inseries, being respectively the switching and protection transistors.Again note that, as indicated by the schematic diagrams, thesetransistors are configured so that the local body contact is held at thesame potential as the source of the transistor. In the case of theseries switching block 301, it is indispensable that all transistor bodycontacts be tied to the local source potential of the respectivetransistor, since the source potential references the output switchingnode potential V_(sw), which swings from near local ground V_(loc) tonear local supply V_(hi) as the state of the switches is varied.

In the case of the series switch element 301, the control voltage 311applied to the gate of Q_(ssw), and the bias voltage applied to the gateof Q_(sp), must both be referenced to the output switching nodepotential V_(sw). Thus, the difference between the potential V_(g,sp)and the potential V_(sw) is held constant despite variations in thevalue of V_(sw) relative to local ground V_(loc), and similarly thedifference between the potential V_(g,ssw) and V_(sw) is held constantin a given control state despite variations in the value of V_(sw)relative to local ground V_(loc). That is, the bias and control voltagesto the series switch must float relative to ground. A means foraccomplishing this end in the exemplary embodiment is described in moredetail below.

Note that it is possible to use PMOS transistors as the series switchingand protection elements 301. In this case, the control and bias voltagesare referenced to the local supply voltage V_(hi), which does not varysignificantly with respect to the local ground V_(loc) during theswitching cycle (ignoring parasitic effects and transient effects to bediscussed in more detail below). When PMOS transistors are used for theseries switching block 301, but the maximum gate-to-drain orgate-to-source voltage of the transistors used is substantially lessthan the supply voltage, it is still necessary to provide means forshifting the level of the control voltages relative to local ground, aswill be described below for the exemplary implementation, but it is nolonger necessary to arrange for floating supply voltage and drivervoltages. However, the use of PMOS transistors instead of NMOStransistors suffers from several disadvantages. Minimization oftransistor on resistance is particularly important in the case of astacked switch block, since the output current must flow through twotransistors in series, incurring dissipative losses in each. Because thehole mobility in silicon is substantially less than the electronmobility, the PMOS transistors must be much wider than NMOS devices toachieve equivalent ON resistance, and therefore the gate capacitance ofthe PMOS switches will be larger than that of comparable NMOS devices.Referring to equation 6, it is apparent that the gate switching losswill be increased in proportion to the gate capacitance, and thereforethe efficiency of the converter will be impaired. In addition, thetransient behavior of the PMOS devices during switching is differentfrom NMOS devices, and varies differently with variations in processparameters during fabrication, and operating temperature and voltage, sothat precise control of relative switching times of the series and shuntswitching elements is more difficult to achieve, particularly at thehigh operating frequencies required to ensure the desired compact sizeand ready integration of the converter elements. Therefore the use ofNMOS transistors in the series switch can be advantageous.

Bootstrapped Voltage Supply and Level Shifting Circuits

The use of a stacked NMOS series switch 301 requires that the controlvoltage 311 to the series switching transistor, and the bias voltageV_(gsp) to the series protection transistor, be referenced to the outputswitching node potential V_(sw), as described above. A conventionalmeans of construction of such a bootstrapped voltage supply is shown inFIG. 15. A diode 401 is used to connect a capacitor 402 to the positivesupply voltage. When the floating node (V_(sw) here) is pulled below thepositive supply voltage, the diode 401 is forward-biased, and thecapacitor 402 can be charged up to a potential equal to the differencebetween the supply voltage and the low value of the floating node, minusthe turn-on voltage of the diode. When the floating node swings high,the diode 401 is reverse-biased, and the high side of the filtercapacitor 402 is able to float to values higher than the supplypotential, thus keeping the series switching transistors on during theappropriate part of the switching cycle. A resistive voltage divider404/405 may be used, as shown in FIG. 15, to extract the desired biasvoltage to be applied to the protection transistor Q_(sp); a low-dropoutregulator or a series diode circuit may also be employed for thispurpose. In some embodiments the buffer can not swing “rail-to-rail”,and needs to be reduced to a voltage range within the breakdown limitsof the switch device.

The approach described above had several disadvantages. Schottky diodeson silicon are difficult to fabricate with acceptable performance, andthus are often unavailable or do not provide acceptable performance. Ajunction diode may be substituted for the Schottky diode. Junctiondiodes may be used in high-voltage, low-frequency systems. However,junction diodes are characterized by a finite response time, referred toas the reverse recovery time, during which current is conducted for aninterval in the nominally-blocking direction after a forward-biascondition. (This results from the necessity of removing minoritycarriers from the junction regions that were injected during a previousperiod of forward current flow.) In the high-frequency converter of thedescribed embodiments, this reverse recovery time is typically asubstantial fraction of the total switching period, resulting insignificant loss of charge and thus voltage from the filter capacitor.Thirdly, the supply voltage is not regulated, so that reliability may beimpacted when a high-voltage source, such as a new battery, isencountered. Finally, the largest voltage that is available to be placedacross the capacitor is the supply voltage minus the diode turn-onvoltage, as noted above. Particularly in the case of a junction diode,the turn-on voltage may be as large as 0.85 V or more, representing asignificant fraction of the supply voltage, impairing operation withbatteries, especially when the input voltage has fallen due to dischargeand/or aging. Thus, traditional bootstrapped voltage supplies haveseveral significant disadvantages when used with the high-frequencyregulator.

FIG. 16 shows an example of an embodiment of a bootstrap circuit 304that addresses the described deficiencies. The supply voltage V_(hi) isdirected to the input of a low-dropout linear regulator (LDO) 411, whoseefficiency has little impact on the overall system efficiency since theamount of power being supplied to the drivers is minimal and whoseoutput voltage can be substantially equal to the LDO's power supplyvoltage. The output of the LDO is directed to a filter capacitor 412tied to local ground potential. When transistors Q_(b,d) and Q_(b,p) areconducting, the LDO generates the previously described second switchinggate voltage V_(gsp).

This filter capacitor 412 supplies voltage to the pair of NMOStransistors Q_(b,d) and Q_(b,p) connected in series. An embodimentincludes the first transistor being driven by a level-shifted replica406 of the driving voltage 312 applied to the shunt switch transistor ofFIG. 13. In consequence, when the shunt switch transistors 302 are onand V_(sw) falls to the local ground potential V_(loc), transistorQ_(b,d) is also turned on, so that the filter capacitor can supplycharge to the floating capacitor 414. When the shunt switch 302 is off,the series switch 301 is on, and V_(sw) rises to the local supplypotential V_(hi), transistor Q_(b,d) is turned off, and the floatingcapacitor 414 can follow V_(sw), that the high side of the floatingcapacitor 414 is maintained above the local supply voltage V_(hi) by thedesired voltage V_(LDO).

During the previously described second period, the floating capacitor ischarged. The charging capacitor 414 is connected between the common node(V_(sw)) and a gate of the NMOS series protection transistor, and aidsin control of the switching gate voltage Vgsp. One embodiment includesthe floating capacitor being charged during the second period by closinga switch that provides a conductive path between the linear regulator(LDO) and the floating capacitor. A more specific embodiment includesthe gate voltages of the bootstrapping transistors Q_(b,d) and Q_(b,p)being turned on when the shunt switch element 302 is closed, and thepair of bootstrapping transistors Q_(b,d) and Q_(b,p) provide aconductive path between the low-dropout linear regulator 411 and thefloating capacitor 414. When transitioning from the second period to thefirst period upon closing the series switch element 301, the floatingcapacitor 414 provides a voltage boost of the switching gate voltagewhen V_(sw) rises. That is, the floating capacitor provides a voltagethat is higher than the first supply voltage to the switching gatevoltage when transitioning to the first period upon closing the seriesswitch element.

Transistor Q_(b,p) acts as a protection transistor for Q_(b,d), in thesame fashion described above with respect to the main switchingtransistors. The voltage V_(g,bp) applied to this transistor is obtainedusing a diode to level-shift the voltage applied to the gate of Q_(b,d),and then filtering the result with a capacitor, to ensure that thevoltage on the protection transistor gate, V_(g,bp) always exceeds theaverage voltage applied to the switching transistor gate, V_(g,bd).

The output voltage of the regulator V_(LDO) is controlled by the inputvoltage V_(ctr), which is proportional to the voltage across thefloating capacitor 414, extracted by a differential buffer 415.

The circuit of FIG. 16 provides a number of advantages over thedescribed diode-based bootstrap supply. The circuit can be implementedusing standard NMOS devices and standard CMOS processes. The voltagesupplied is regulated and cannot exceed the intended values with a newbattery. The voltage supplied can approach the local supply voltage towithin the on-resistance of the series NMOS devices and the regulator,and thus is not limited by a diode voltage drop, so performance is notimpaired as the battery ages. Fast NMOS devices can be used for theswitching function Q_(b,d), so operation of the circuit does not dependon reverse-bias recovery times. The reuse of the control input V_(gshsw)ensures that timing synchrony between the bootstrapped supply operationand the operation of the stacked switches is maintained as duty cyclevaries.

For particular embodiments, the buffer amplifier 413 used in the circuitof FIG. 16 is a conventional tapered CMOS buffer, but the supply railsfor this buffer are the switch node potential V_(sw) and the high sideof the floating capacitor 414, which is somewhat less than V_(LDO) aboveV_(sw). The control voltages supplied to this buffer amplifier musttherefore also be referenced to the switching node potential V_(sw)rather than the local ground potential V_(loc). The exemplary embodimentof a level-shifting circuit 305 of FIG. 17 addresses this requirement.

The previously described switching gate voltage can be generated bylevel-shifting a control voltage from the controller. For an embodiment,level shifting the control voltage includes referencing the switchinggate voltage to the voltage potential of the common node.

The voltage difference (aV_(dd1)-V_(sw)) is approximately equal to themaximum allowed DC voltage for the transistors in use, e.g. 2.0 V for0.18 micron technology. The voltage aV_(dd2) is also set to this value,referenced to the ground node. The voltage V_(sw)+1 V is obtained by theuse of a diode between aV_(dd1) and V_(sw), with capacitive filtering toremove transients.

The ground-referenced differential control voltage from the Controlleris fed to a voltage-to-current converter 501. The output differentialcurrent on each branch passes through two cascode transistors, one pair502 held at aV_(dd2) and the other pair 503 at approximatelyV_(sw)+1.3V. The currents then pass through active loads, hererepresented in simplified form by resistors R_(act), which convert thedifferential currents back to a differential voltage, which is fed intothe differential transresistance amplifier 504 and thus throughadditional buffer stages 413 as appropriate to drive the series switchgate, V_(gssw). In the preferred embodiment, the active loads areimplemented as NMOS diodes with cross-coupled NMOS transistors toincrease the AC load resistance, with some additional fixed resistors.

It is important to note that the level shifting circuitry 305 shown inFIG. 17 can be substantially replicated, depicted as the delay block 307in FIG. 12 to supply a control voltage to the shunt switch 302. In thedelay block 307, the circuit is configured with the gate voltage appliedto both transistors equal to aV_(dd2), and thus no voltage shiftresults. However, the propagation delay is substantially identical tothat encountered in the level shifting block, thus preserving exactsynchrony of the control inputs to the series and shunt switches, vitalfor successful operation of the inventive high-frequency converter.

Spike Protection Circuit

The use of extremely fast switching times, as described previously,minimizes dissipation in the channel of the switching transistors duringthe transition from the OFF state to the ON state. However, to employsuch fast switching times in a conventional low-voltage process withoutdeleterious impact on the reliability of the converter, addedprecautions are required. In any practical implementation of aconverter, the connections providing current from the supply (such as abattery) to the high side of the series switch are associated with afinite parasitic inductance L_(par,hi). This inductance is the netresult of several physical inductances present in any realistic packageddevice, including the parasitic inductance of decoupling capacitorsexternal to the package, the parasitic inductance of the traces and/orwirebonds connecting the supply leads or bumps to the contact pads onthe integrated circuit containing the converter, and a typically smallerbut still not negligible contribution from traces on the converter ICitself. The equivalent inductance of these various contributions istypically neglected in the design of conventional low-frequencyconverters. Prior-art high-frequency converters using resonant gatedrives, where the switching voltage provided to the gate of theswitching device is substantially sinusoidal and therefore the switchingtransition is relatively slow, have heretofore also neglected thisinductance.

However, the described embodiments can employ very fast switchingtransitions, and shunt capacitance is not intentionally added to theswitching transistors as might be the case in a prior-art Zero VoltageSwitching approach. In consequence, referring again to FIG. 12, when theseries switch 301 is ON, the full output current passes through theparasitic inductor L_(par,hi). When the series switch 301 is rapidlyturned off, this parasitic inductor tries to maintain the same outputcurrent, causing the voltage V_(hi) to increase rapidly in the absenceof any preventive measures. It may also be anticipated that, in theabsence of dissipation within the circuit, the parasitic inductance mayinteract with parasitic capacitances to form a high-frequency resonantcircuit, which will create a persistent ringing condition as a result ofthe initial rapid voltage transition. An example is depicted in FIG. 18.In this case, a realistic stacked switching circuit, partitioned intofour blocks, was simulated using the fast switching transitionsdescribed previously, with realistic values for parasitic inductance(L_(par,pk), L_(par,bd)) associated with the semiconductor package andprinted circuit board, but no bypass capacitance or spike preventionprovided. It is apparent that at the moment the series switch turns off,the local supply voltage spikes to as high as 12.5 volts, greatly inexcess of the maximum limit even for a stacked (cascode) configurationif using 0.18 micron devices. In addition, the circuit displays anextended ringing behavior with a characteristic frequency of roughly 1.5GHz. When the series switch turns on, the local supply potential fallsrapidly to voltages as low as 1 V and then rings at a frequency of about1 GHz. In each case, the ringing amplitude displays slow damping overthe course of 5-10 nsec. It should be noted that inclusion of anoff-chip capacitor does not appreciably affect the size of the spikes.

It should be noted that voltage spikes will occur in any converter thathas fast switching transitions without added shunt capacitance aroundthe switches, irrespective of whether the switching elements are stackedNMOS switches, or any other type of switch that includes, for example,PMOS transistors, a single PMOS transistor, a single NMOS transistor, orany other fast switching device. Additionally, while the detailedbehavior shown in FIG. 18 may be specific to the described embodiments,the general phenomena of excessive voltage excursions (spikes) andringing will occur any time a fast switching transition without addedshunt capacitance is used in a converter.

Clearly, it is desirable to provide spike protection circuitry for theseries and shunt switch elements of any DC-DC converter employing fastswitching transitions as described above. Ideally, the spike protectionincludes capacitive elements between previously described first voltagesupply and second voltage supply. For an embodiment, the spikeprotection circuitry includes a transmission line having minimalparasitic inductances, thereby minimizing the impedance of thetransmission line.

FIG. 19 shows an example of a voltage regulator that further includes aspike protection circuit 1910. The spike protection circuit 1910provides a charge-storage circuit between the first voltage (power)supply and the second voltage (power) supply. As shown, the spikeprotection circuit 1910 is located on the same integrated circuit 1930as the series and shunt switch elements. The charge-storage circuitsinclude capacitive elements (C_(SP)) that are disposed on a sameintegrated circuit as the series switch element and the shunt switchelement, adjacent to each of the series switch element and the shuntswitch element. The integrated circuit is located within a package 1940.More specifically, the spike protection circuitry 1910 is proximallyplaced directly on the integrated circuit 1930, and can be disposed onboth sides of the switching circuitry, and with no functional blocksexcept interconnections between the switching circuitry and the spikeprotection circuitry 1910. An embodiment includes the capacitiveelements being located on opposing sides of each of the series switchelement and the shunt switch element.

It is important to note that in the absence of the dissipativeimpedance, represented in simplified form in FIG. 19 by R_(sp), thespike protection capacitance may form a high-quality-factor (high-Q)series resonant circuit with the parasitic inductances L_(par,pk) andL_(int1), where L_(int1) is a parasitic inductance of the internalon-chip circuitry. The response of such a circuit to a step-functionexcitation, such as that effectively provided when the series switchsuddenly transitions from ON to OFF, will result in a persistentsinusoidal voltage at the resonant frequency, as depicted in FIG. 18.Furthermore, the magnitude of this resonant voltage across each seriescomponent may greatly exceed the magnitude of the total voltage acrossthe resonator. The sinusoidal voltage will persist until its energy isdissipated by losses within the resonator or associated components. Thisis a highly undesirable situation, since each excursion of the nodevoltage will produce additional stress to the series and/or shunt switchtransistors, and ringing may also lead to interference with theoperation of nearby circuits, both in the DC-DC converter and in othercircuits on the same chip, when the converter is part of an integratedsystem. The ringing might also cause a loss in efficiency if the ringingis poorly timed with the opening or closing of one of the switches. Itis therefore important to incorporate a dissipative element in the spikeprotection impedance, represented schematically by R_(sp), to minimizeundesired ringing in the spike protection circuit. That is, thedissipative element damps ringing of a power supply to the regulatorcircuitry. For an embodiment, the dissipative element critically dampsringing of a power supply to the regulator circuitry.

The value of this dissipative element is selected based on a number ofconsiderations. Firstly, the impedance of the element must itself besmall enough so that the voltage resulting when the output current flowsthrough it is small compared to the maximum voltages allowed at thejunctions of the switching transistors, to ensure that the dissipativeimpedance does not itself create voltages that degrade reliability.Secondly, the dissipative element must be large enough to suppressexcessive ringing in the series resonant circuit consisting of theparasitic inductances and the spike dissipation circuitry. Finally, theleast value of dissipation that produces acceptable ringing suppressionshould be employed, as the dissipation in the equivalent resistor R_(sp)is lost to the load and thus degrades overall system efficiency. It isin general not possible to provide a simple analytic formula for theexact dissipation value, which must instead be found through detailedcircuit simulation and optimization of the two relevant figures ofmerit: the overall converter efficiency, and the root-mean-square (RMS)voltage applied to the switching transistor gate-drain or gate-sourceconnections. For one embodiment, the optimal resistance value istypically close to that which matches the characteristic impedance of alumped-element approximation to a transmission line, that is:

$R_{sp} \approx \sqrt{\frac{L_{{par},{pk}} + L_{{par},{pk}}}{C_{sp}}}$For an embodiment, a value of resistance of the dissipative elementmatches a characteristic impedance of a lumped-element approximation ofa transmission line, wherein the transmission line comprises thecharge-storage circuit and a parasitic inductance associated with theregulator circuitry. For another embodiment, value of resistance of thedissipative element is based on a characteristic impedance of alumped-element approximation of a transmission line, wherein thetransmission line comprises the charge-storage circuit and a parasiticinductance associated with the regulator circuitry. For an embodiment,the parasitic inductance includes an inductance associated with at leastan integrated circuit package that includes the voltage regulator, andan integrated circuit that includes the voltage regulator.

For an embodiment, the dissipative element suppresses ringing of theregulated voltage during a switching period of the switching element. Anembodiment includes a value of resistance of the dissipative elementbeing selected to prevent degradation of the switching elements.

In the exemplary embodiment, for which simulation results are presentedin FIG. 20, the switching circuitry and associated spike protectioncircuitry are partitioned into four segments, as discussed elsewhere.Each spike protection segment provides an equivalent capacitance of 50pF and an equivalent dissipative resistance of 2 ohms, so that the wholeconverter provides spike protection dissipation roughly equivalent to avalue of 0.5 ohms for R_(sp), and equivalent capacitance C_(sp) of 200pF, while switching a supply current of 600 mA. As can be observed bycomparison with FIG. 18, the local supply voltage spikes aresubstantially reduced.

In an embodiment, the voltage spike protection circuitry is formed usingthe gate-to-channel capacitance of MOS structures. MOS structures areemployed by this embodiment because they provide the highest capacitanceper unit area typically available in a standard CMOS process. For anembodiment, at least one MOS structure includes the charge-storagecircuit and at least a portion of the dissipative element. Othercapacitor structures, such as parallel-plate metal-insulator-metal (MIM)capacitors, edge-defined capacitors, trench capacitors, or variouscolumnar or pillar structures such as those well-known in the art foruse in DRAM storage cells, can be used if they are available in a givenprocess. In general, the voltage that can be safely applied across anMOS structure between the gate and the common source/drain/bodyconnection is similar to that allowable between the gate and any otherdevice terminal in ordinary MOS transistor operation. Since the voltagespike protection circuit 303 is connected between the local terminalsV_(hi) and V_(loc), between which is at least the DC supply voltage, itmay be necessary to place multiple MOS capacitors in series in order toensure that the voltage across the terminals of any one capacitor isacceptably small. For an embodiment, a voltage across each MOS capacitoris maintained below a predetermined threshold as determined by a maximumallowed DC voltage of each MOS capacitor. A bias network may be used toensure that the intermediate node voltage between the series MOSstructures interpolates the applied DC potential as desired, withoutaffecting the AC characteristics of the decoupling network. In theexemplary embodiment, relatively heavily-n-doped wells are used tomaximize capacitance between the gate and channel/body region, butconventional NMOS or PMOS devices can also be used.

Dissipative elements R_(sp) can be incorporated in series with thecapacitors. These dissipative elements can be realized as polysiliconresistors, thin film metallic resistors, or any other convenientresistive element. The equivalent series resistance associated with thecapacitor structures varies depending on the process used and theapproach employed for capacitor fabrication, and in some cases may besufficiently large that additional dissipative elements are notrequired.

In general, increasing the value of the capacitor C_(sp) will lead to anincreased parasitic inductance L_(int1) for any given capacitortechnology and layout, because the physical size of the capacitorincreases, and thus the distance current must be carried by theinterconnecting wires increases. The parasitic inductance associatedwith a given capacitor structure may be reduced by good layoutguidelines; for example, contacts should not be placed at opposite endsof a rectangular structure, but preferably near the center of thestructure, or both located at one end thereof, in order to reduce theparasitic inductance. However, for increasing maximum current, itbecomes difficult to construct a single capacitor with sufficiently lowinductance. For example, for a doubling of the maximum output current,the protection capacitance must double, but the inductance (which scaleswith the capacitance) must be halved. For any given technology andcapacitor structure and layout, an output current will be reached atwhich the parasitic inductance become excessive.

A solution to this problem can be found by further subdividing switchingelements of the switching circuitry 301 and 302 into segments (switchingblock segments) connected in parallel, such that each segment carries aportion of the total output current, and further partitioning theprotection circuit C_(sp)-R_(sp) into separate segments, each protectingone of the switching block segments. In an embodiment, the protectioncircuitry is further subdivided such that a portion of the protectioncircuit is disposed on each side of the switching circuit segment, andoptionally in other convenient locations proximate to the switchesthemselves. For an embodiment, at least a portion of the voltage spikeprotection circuitry is located between the plurality of switching blocksegments. The spike protection circuitry can include charge-storagecircuit segments. An embodiment includes each charge-storage circuitsegment of the spike protection circuit being located physically closerto the switching block segment it protects than any other switchingblock segment.

An example is shown in FIG. 21, in which the switching circuitry(switching elements) 301 and 302 is partitioned into a number ofswitching block segments 2120, 2130, 2140, and so on, and associatedwith each segment are protection circuitry blocks, such as 2121 and2122. In this configuration, the maximum current associated with eachcapacitance structure is reduced (by a factor of n if n blocks arepresent), and thus the required physical size is reduced sufficiently tominimize parasitic inductance. In general, total output current will beshared roughly equally between the various segments of the switchingcircuitry, although unequal sharing may be advantageous in someapplications.

An exemplary implementation of such a segmented converter is depictedschematically in FIG. 22. In the exemplary embodiment, four segments2220, 2230, 2240, and 2250 each provide 150 mA maximum output current,for a total of 600 mA maximum output current. For an embodiment, eachsegment is approximately 400 microns in height, and has three contacts,shown for the segment 2220 as 2221, 2222, and 2223, connectedrespectively to the supply voltage V_(hi), the output inductor (carryingcurrent I_(out)), and the local ground connection V_(loc). In theexemplary embodiment, these connections are made using a ball grid arraypackage, but bond wires or other contact means may be employed. Aclose-up of one of the segments 22201 shows bus 2226 for the firstsupply voltage V_(hi), connected to ball contact 2221 (using upper-levelmetallization not shown here for clarity), and bus 2227 for local groundV_(loc), connected to ball contact 2223 (again using upper levelmetallization, not shown here). Central block 2225 contains theswitching circuitry, described in detail above, with the output currentthereof connected to ball contact 2222. The buses 2226 and 2227 surroundthe switching circuitry block 2225. Via contacts are employed to connectbuses 2226 and 2227 to blocks of capacitors disposed in a capacitorregion located generally below the buses, as shown in thecross-sectional image 22202. The capacitors may be implemented in anyconvenient fashion for the process in use, as described previously; inthe preferred embodiment, the capacitors are implemented as two NMOSstructures in series, as described above. The ring-shaped buses providethe minimum parasitic inductance for a given spike protectioncapacitance. (Dissipation resistances R_(sp), being compact, are notshown here, but may be placed in any convenient location along the buscontacts.) In an embodiment, a capacitance of 50 pF per segment, with aparasitic inductance of less than 80 pH per segment, can be obtainedfrom the use of ring-shaped buses with capacitance distributed below thebuses. The resulting overall equivalent circuit has 200 pF spikeprotection capacitance with only about 20 pH parasitic inductance, forthe full converter composed of four segments. As shown in FIG. 20, thisresults in maximum spike voltages on the order of 0.9 V for times on theorder of 1 nsec, with some ringing at slightly lower voltage levels. Foran exemplary DC voltage of 4.4 V, the RMS voltage applied to the stackedswitches is increased by only about 0.1 V to 4.5 V, which typically hasan insignificant effect on reliability.

Although specific embodiments have been described and illustrated, theembodiments are not to be limited to the specific forms or arrangementsof parts so described and illustrated.

1. A voltage regulator, comprising: regulator circuitry generating aregulated voltage from a first power supply and a second power supply;voltage spike protection circuitry for voltage-spike-protecting theregulator circuitry, comprising a dissipative element and acharge-storage circuit; wherein a value of resistance of the dissipativeelement is based on a characteristic impedance of a lumped-elementapproximation of a transmission line, wherein the transmission linecomprises the charge-storage circuit and a parasitic inductanceassociated with the regulator circuitry.
 2. The voltage regulator ofclaim 1, wherein the parasitic inductance comprises an inductanceassociated with at least an integrated circuit package that includes thevoltage regulator, and an integrated circuit that includes the voltageregulator.
 3. The voltage regulator of claim 1, wherein the parasiticinductance comprises an inductance associated with a power supply of theregulator circuitry.
 4. The voltage regulator of claim 1, wherein thedissipative element damps ringing of a power supply to the regulatorcircuitry.
 5. The voltage regulator of claim 1, further comprising atleast one MOS structure, wherein the MOS structure comprises thecharge-storage circuit and at least a portion of the dissipativeelement.
 6. The voltage regulator of claim 1, wherein charge-storagecircuit comprises a plurality of MOS capacitors connected in series,wherein a voltage across each MOS capacitor is maintained below apredetermined threshold as determined by a maximum allowed DC voltage ofeach MOS capacitor.
 7. The voltage regulator of claim 1, furthercomprising at least one switching element.
 8. The voltage regulator ofclaim 7, wherein the dissipative element suppresses ringing of theregulated voltage during a switching period of the at least oneswitching element.
 9. The voltage regulator of claim 7, wherein a valueof resistance of the dissipative element is selected to preventdegradation of the at least one switching element.
 10. The voltageregulator of claim 7, wherein the at least one switching elementcomprises a plurality of switching block segments.
 11. The voltageregulator of claim 10, wherein at least a portion of the voltage spikeprotection circuitry is located between the plurality of switching blocksegments.
 12. The voltage regulator of claim 10, wherein thecharge-storage circuit comprises charge-storage circuit segments, andeach charge-storage circuit segment of the spike protection circuit isphysically closer to the switching block segment it protects than anyother switching block segment.
 13. A method of generating a regulatedvoltage, comprising: regulator circuitry generating a regulated voltagefrom an input voltage; voltage-spike-protecting the regulator circuitrywith voltage spike protection circuitry, wherein the voltage spikeprotection circuitry comprises a dissipative element and acharge-storage circuit; wherein a value of resistance of the dissipativeelement is based on a characteristic impedance of a lumped-elementapproximation of a transmission line, wherein the transmission linecomprises the charge-storage circuit and a parasitic inductanceassociated with generation of the regulated voltage.
 14. The method ofclaim 13, wherein the parasitic inductance comprises an inductanceassociated with at least an integrated circuit package and an integratedcircuit.
 15. The method of claim 14, wherein the inductance comprises aninductance associated with a power supply to circuitry that generatesthe regulated voltage.
 16. The method of claim 13, wherein a value ofresistance of the dissipative element is selected to critically dampringing of a power supply to circuitry that generates the regulatedvoltage.
 17. The method of claim 13, wherein a resistance of thedissipative element damps ringing of a power supply to circuitry thatgenerates the regulated voltage.
 18. The method of claim 13, wherein atleast one MOS structure includes the charge-storage circuit and at leasta portion of the dissipative element.
 19. The method of claim 13,wherein the charge-storage circuit comprises a plurality of MOScapacitors connected in series, wherein a voltage across each MOScapacitor is maintained below a predetermined threshold as determined bya maximum allowed DC voltage of each MOS capacitor.
 20. The method ofclaim 13, further comprising generating the regulated voltage thoughcontrolled closing and opening of at least one switch element.
 21. Themethod of claim 20, wherein a value of resistance of the dissipativeelement is selected to suppress ringing of the regulated voltage duringa switching period of the at least one switching element.
 22. The methodof claim 21, wherein at least one characteristic of the dissipativeelement is additionally selected to prevent degradation of the at leastone switch element.
 23. The method of claim 21, wherein at least oneswitch element is segmented into a plurality of switching blocksegments.
 24. The method of claim 23, wherein at least a portion of thevoltage spike protection circuitry is located between the plurality ofswitching block segments.
 25. The method of claim 23, wherein eachcharge-storage circuit segment of the spike protection circuit isphysically closer to the switching block segment it protects than anyother switching block segment.
 26. A method of generating a regulatedvoltage, comprising: regulator circuitry generating the regulatedvoltage though controlled closing and opening of a series switch elementand shunt switch element, the series switch element being connectedbetween a first voltage supply and a common node, and the shunt switchbeing connected between the common node and a second supply voltage,comprising; closing the series switch element during a first period;closing the shunt switch element during a second period; wherein theseries switch element and the shunt switch element form switchingblocks, and each switching block comprises a plurality of switchingblock segments, and further comprising voltage-spike-protecting theregulator circuitry with voltage spike protection circuitry, wherein thevoltage spike protection circuitry comprising a dissipative element anda charge-storage circuit; wherein a value of resistance of thedissipative element is based on a characteristic impedance of alumped-element approximation of a transmission line, wherein thetransmission line comprises the charge-storage circuit and a parasiticinductance associated with the regulator circuitry.
 27. A voltageregulator, comprising: regulator circuitry generating a regulatedvoltage from a first power supply and a second power supply; voltagespike protection circuitry for voltage-spike-protecting the regulatorcircuitry, comprising a dissipative element and a charge-storagecircuit; wherein the charge-storage circuit comprises a plurality of MOScapacitors connected in series, wherein a voltage across each MOScapacitor is maintained below a predetermined threshold as determined bya maximum allowed DC voltage of each MOS capacitor.
 28. A voltageregulator, comprising: regulator circuitry generating a regulatedvoltage from a first power supply and a second power supply; voltagespike protection circuitry for voltage-spike-protecting the regulatorcircuitry, comprising a dissipative element and a charge-storagecircuit; at least one switching element, wherein the at least oneswitching element comprises a plurality of switching block segments;wherein the charge-storage circuit comprises charge-storage circuitsegments, and each charge-storage circuit segment of the spikeprotection circuit is physically closer to the switching block segmentit protects than any other switching block segment.
 29. A voltageregulator, comprising: regulator circuitry generating a regulatedvoltage from a first power supply and a second power supply, theregulator circuitry comprising a series switch element and a shuntswitch element connected between the first power supply and the secondpower supply, and a switching controller operative to generate aswitching voltage through closing and opening of a series switch and ashunt switch as controlled by a series switch control signal and a shuntswitch control signal; voltage spike protection circuitry connectedbetween the first power supply and the second power supply forvoltage-spike-protecting the regulator circuitry, the voltage spikeprotection circuitry comprising a dissipative element, an inductiveelement, and a capacitive element; wherein the value of resistance ofthe dissipative element matches a characteristic impedance of alumped-element approximation of a transmission line, wherein thetransmission line comprises a charge-storage circuit and a parasiticinductance associated with the regulator circuitry.
 30. A method ofgenerating a regulated voltage, comprising: regulator circuitrygenerating a regulated voltage from an input voltage;voltage-spike-protecting the regulator circuitry with voltage spikeprotection circuitry, wherein the voltage spike protection circuitrycomprises a dissipative element and a charge-storage circuit; whereinthe charge-storage circuit comprises a plurality of MOS capacitorsconnected in series, wherein a voltage across each MOS capacitor ismaintained below a predetermined threshold as determined by a maximumallowed DC voltage of each MOS capacitor.
 31. A method of generating aregulated voltage, comprising: regulator circuitry generating aregulated voltage from an input voltage; voltage-spike-protecting theregulator circuitry with voltage spike protection circuitry, wherein thevoltage spike protection circuitry comprises a dissipative element and acharge-storage circuit; at least one switching element, wherein the atleast one switching element comprises a plurality of switching blocksegments; wherein the charge-storage circuit comprises charge-storagecircuit segments, and each charge-storage circuit segment of the spikeprotection circuit is physically closer to the switching block segmentit protects than any other switching block segment.